Solutions for business growth

Chemistry (Compulsory for all XL candidates)

• Section 1 – Atomic Structure and Periodicity: Planck’s quantum theory, wave-particle duality, uncertainty principle, comparison between Bohr’s model and quantum mechanical model of hydrogen atom, electronic configuration of atoms and ions. Hund’s rule and Pauli’s exclusion principle. Periodic table and periodic properties: ionization energy, electron affinity, electronegativity and atomic size.
• Section 2 – Structure and Bonding: Ionic and covalent bonding, MO and VB approaches for diatomic molecules, VSEPR theory and shape of molecules, hybridization, resonance, dipole moment, structure parameters such as bond length, bond angle, and bond energy, hydrogen bonding and van der Waals interactions. Ionic solids, ionic radii and lattice energy (Born‐Haber cycle). HSAB principle.
• Section 3 – s, p and d Block Elements: Oxides, halides, and hydrides of alkali, alkaline earth metals, B, Al, Si, N, P, and S. General characteristics of 3d elements. Coordination complexes: valence bond and crystal field theory, color, geometry, magnetic properties, and isomerism.
• Section 4 – Chemical Equilibria: Osmotic pressure, elevation of boiling point and depression of freezing point, ionic equilibria in solution, solubility product, common ion effect, hydrolysis of salts, pH, buffer and their applications. Equilibrium constants (Kc, Kp, and Kx) for homogeneous reactions.
• Section 5 – Electrochemistry: Conductance, Kohlrausch law, cell potentials, EMF, Nernst equation, thermodynamic aspects, and their applications.
• Section 6 – Reaction Kinetics: Rate constant, order of reaction, molecularity, activation energy, zero, first and second-order kinetics, catalysis, and elementary enzyme reactions. Reversible and irreversible inhibition of enzymes.
• Section 7 – Thermodynamics: Qualitative treatment of state and path functions, First law, reversible and irreversible processes, internal energy, enthalpy, Kirchoff equation, heat of reaction, Hess’s law, heat of formation. Second law, entropy, and free energy. Gibbs‐Helmholtz equation, free energy change, and spontaneity. Free energy changes from equilibrium constant.
• Section 8 – Structure-Reactivity Correlations and Organic Reaction Mechanisms: Acids and bases, electronic and steric effects, Stereochemistry, optical and geometrical isomerism, tautomerism, conformers, and concept of aromaticity. Elementary treatment of SN1, SN2, E1, E2, and radical reactions, Hoffmann/Saytzeff rules, addition reactions, Markownikoff rule, and Kharasch effect. Elementary hydroboration reactions. Grignard’s reagents and their uses. Aromatic electrophilic substitutions, orientation effect as exemplified by various functional groups. Identification of common functional groups by chemical tests.
• Section 9 – Chemistry of Biomolecules: Amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids, and nucleotides. Peptide sequencing by chemical and enzymatic proteolytic methods. DNA sequencing by chemical and enzymatic methods. Carbohydrates (up to hexoses only). Lipids (triglycerides only). Principles of biomolecule purification- Ion exchange and gel filtration chromatography. Identification of these biomolecules and Beer- Lambert’s law.

Biochemistry

• Section 1: Organization of life; Importance of water; Structure and function of biomolecules: Amino acids, Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, and Nucleic acids; Protein structure, folding/misfolding, and function; Myoglobin, Hemoglobin, Lysozyme, Ribonuclease A, Carboxypeptidase, and Chymotrypsin.
• Section 2: Enzyme kinetics, regulation, and inhibition; Vitamins and Coenzymes; Bioenergetics and metabolism; Generation and utilization of ATP; Metabolic pathways and their regulation: glycolysis, TCA cycle, pentose phosphate pathway, oxidative phosphorylation, gluconeogenesis, glycogen and fatty acid metabolism; Metabolism of Nitrogen-containing compounds: nitrogen fixation, amino acids, and nucleotides. Photosynthesis, Calvin cycle.
• Section 3: Biochemical separation techniques: ion exchange, size exclusion, and affinity chromatography, centrifugation; Characterization of biomolecules by electrophoresis; DNA-protein and protein-protein interactions; UV-visible and fluorescence spectroscopy; Mass spectrometry.
• Section 4: Cell structure and organelles; Biological membranes; Action potential; Transport across membranes; Membrane assembly and Protein targeting; Signal transduction; Receptor-ligand interaction; Hormones and neurotransmitters.
• Section 5: DNA replication, transcription, and translation; DNA damage and repair; Biochemical regulation of gene expression; Recombinant DNA technology and applications: PCR, site-directed mutagenesis, DNA-microarray; Next-generation sequencing; Gene silencing and editing.
• Section 6: Immune system: Innate and adaptive; Cells of the immune system; Active and passive immunity; Complement system; Antibody structure, function, and diversity; B cell and T Cell receptors; B cell and T cell activation; Major histocompatibility complex; Immunological techniques: Immunodiffusion, immune-electrophoresis, RIA, and ELISA, flow cytometry; Monoclonal antibodies and their applications.

Botany

• Section 1 – Plant Systematics: Botanical nomenclature, history of plant taxonomy, diversity, and classification of plants, APG system of plant classification; phylogenetics and cladistics, molecular taxonomy, and DNA barcoding; Centers for plant taxonomy and herbaria in India.
• Section 2 – Plant Anatomy: Anatomy of root, stem, and leaves, floral organs, embryo, and young seedlings, Primary and secondary meristems, stellar organization, vascular system, and their ontogeny, xylem and phloem structure, secondary growth in plants and wood anatomy, plant cell structure, and differences from animal cells.
• Section 3 – Plant development; cell and tissue morphogenesis: Life cycle of an angiosperm, development of male and female gametophyte; cell fate determination and tissue patterning; spacing mechanisms in trichomes and stomata. Embryogenesis, organization, and function of shoot and root apical meristems. Transition to flowering: photoperiodism and vernalization, ABC model of floral organ patterning, pollen germination, double fertilization, seed development; Xylem and phloem cell differentiation, photomorphogenesis; phytochrome, cryptochrome, phototropin. Role of auxin, cytokinin, gibberellins, and brassinosteroids on plant development.
• Section 4 – Plant physiology and biochemistry: Plant water relations, mechanisms of uptake and transport of water, ions, and solutes from soil to plants, apoplastic and symplastic transport mechanisms. Mechanism of stomatal movements, nitrogen metabolism, photosynthesis; C3, C4, and CAM cycles, photorespiration, respiration: glycolysis, TCA cycle, and electron transport chain. Plant responses and mechanisms of abiotic stresses including drought, salinity, freezing, and heat stress, metal toxicity; role of abscisic acid in abiotic stresses. Structure and function of biomolecules (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acid), enzyme kinetics. Structure and biosynthesis of major plant secondary metabolites (alkaloids, terpenes, phenylpropanoids, flavonoids). Biosynthesis, mechanism of action, and physiological effects of auxin, cytokinin, gibberellic acids, brassinosteroid, ethylene, strigolactone, abscisic acid, salicylic and jasmonic acid. Senescence and programmed cell death.
• Section 5 – Genetics and genomics: Cell cycle and cell division. Principles of Mendelian inheritance, linkage, recombination, genetic mapping; extra chromosomal inheritance; Introduction to epigenetics; gene silencing- transgene silencing, position effect variegation, and paramutation; Chromosomal aberrations: deletions, duplications, translocations, inversions, polyploidy, and aneuploidy. Mutations, types of mutations, DNA repair mechanisms. Mendelian disorders in humans. Structure and function of the nuclear pore complex. Genome sequencing; assembly, annotations, and tools for genome analysis; comparative genomics; functional genomics; proteomics; metabolomics.
• Section 6 – Plant breeding and biotechnology: Principles, methods, and techniques of plant breeding, breeding for crop improvement. Quantitative inheritance, heterosis, and inbreeding depression. Cytoplasmic male sterility and its applications in plant breeding. Breeding for abiotic and biotic stress resistance, ideotype breeding. Molecular markers, QTL mapping, marker-assisted selection; plant tissue culture, gene cloning vectors (Ti plasmid and viral vectors); transgenics and RNA interference; genome editing tools (CRISPR/Cas, ZFNs, TALENs); the role of microbes in sustainable agriculture.
• Section 7 – Economic Botany: Origin of cultivated plants, Vavilov’s centres of origin, Plants as sources for food, fodder, fibre, medicines, timber, and beverages; Ethnobotany; Importance of plant genetic resources; bioprospecting and phytoremediation. IPR, Plant Breeder Rights, and Farmer’s Rights.
• Section 8 – Plant Pathology: Diseases caused by bacteria, fungi, viruses, nematodes, and insects on economically important crops in India, symptoms, causal organisms, and control measures; Molecular mechanism of pathogenesis; virulence factors, plant defense mechanisms (HR, systemic acquired resistance); gene-for-gene interaction, plant-microbe beneficial interaction.
• Section 9 – Ecology and Environment: Ecosystems, food chain, food web, ecological pyramids, energy flow, biogeochemical cycles, concept of biodiversity, methods of biodiversity conservation; Community ecology and vegetation analysis; Air, water, and soil pollution, and their effects on plants; Climate change, Greenhouse gases, ozone layer, and montreal protocol; Biological indicators of pollution, bioremediation, phytoremediation, solid waste management.